Five Features of the Hebrew Social Structure

Dr. Alice C. Linsley


The application of kinship analysis has proven extremely useful in identifying the following features of the social structure of the biblical Hebrew.

1. The Hebrew ruler-priests were a caste. The most significant feature of a caste is the practice of taking marriage partners only from members of the caste (caste endogamy).

2. The Hebrew caste is characterized by cognatic double descent or bilateral descent. The individual’s descent is traced through both the father’s line and the mother’s line. With bilateral descent, there is a doubling of ancestors. Lamech the Younger could claim descent from both Cain and Seth since his father and mother had Cain and Seth as common ancestors. Nimrod could claim descent from both Ham and Shem since the descendants of Ham and Shem intermarried.

Tamar’s two sons Zerah (the firstborn) and Perez and their wives were the principal cognatic ancestors of the people of Judah. Judah was Hebrew, not Jewish, because Judaism did not exist in the time of Judah. Jesus is a descendant of Tamar and Judah. The wives of Zerah and Perez are the principal female ancestors of the people of Judah. This story is told in Genesis 38 and the cognatic feature is reintroduced in Ruth 4 where we are told that these men and women are associated with Bethlehem, an ancient Horite Hebrew settlement.

Descent from Hebrew cousin wives can be traced for especially high-ranking Hebrew by the cousin bride's naming prerogative. The diagram shows the pattern. Lamech the Elder's daughter Naamah (Gen. 4) married her cousin Methusaleh (Gen. 5) and named their firstborn son Lamech after her father.

The firstborn son of the cousin wife was not the proper heir of his biological father. Methuselah's proper heir was the firstborn son of his first wife, probably a half-sister, as was Sarah to Abraham.

3. In the Hebrew cognatic double descent system, caste members receive some rights and obligations from the father’s side and some from the mother’s side. Those rights and responsibilities depend on the parent’s status and the order of marriage. The rights and responsibilities of the firstborn son of the first wife (usually a half-sister) are different than those of the firstborn son of the second wife (usually a cousin).

4. Hebrew men who ruled over territories maintained two wives in separate settlements. These settlements marked the boundaries of the ruler’s territory. The wives’ settlements were usually on a north-south axis. The settlements were guarded by warriors. The wives of high-ranking Hebrew ruler-priests were served by handmaids, metal workers, potters, shepherds, weavers, brewers, and farmers.

5. Only males offered blood sacrifice at the altars. Women were not permitted in the area where animals were sacrificed. Likewise, men were not permitted in the birthing chambers where women shed blood in childbirth. These distinct types of blood work speak of death and life and the two were never to be confused. Therefore, the blood work of the Hebrew priests and the blood work of the Hebrew women never shared the same space.

Because the Hebrew caste resisted innovations, their customs persisted among Abraham’s numerous Hebrew descendants. Some of Abraham’s ancestors lived in the Nile Valley, some lived in Canaan, and others lived in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. That is why it is possible to speak of Kushite Hebrew, Canaanite Hebrew, and Anatolian Hebrew.

Jacob and Esau were both Hebrew rulers as they were members of the Hebrew ruler-priests caste. A trait of castes is endogamy, the custom of marrying only members of the caste or blood relatives. Jacob and Esau married Hebrew women, including women of the clan of Seir the Horite Hebrew (Gen. 36), and women of the clan of Nahor the Younger of Padan-Aram ("Plain of Aram") otherwise known as Aram-naharaim ("Aram of the two rivers"). The town of Haran was there. The word Haran is derived from the Ancient Akkadian word harranū, meaning "road" or "caravan route." That is where Abraham’s father died and Nahor, Abraham’s older brother, assumed rule of Terah’s household and territory.

One of Esau's wives was the daughter of the Hittite Hebrew ruler, Elon. The Hittites were descendants of Heth, a Hebrew ruler listed in Genesis 10:15. Some of his descendants lived in Hebron (Gen. 23:3,7) which was in Abraham's territory.

Abraham's territory extended between the settlements of his wives in Hebron and Beersheba Shown on the map). Both settlements were in ancient Edom (Greek: Idumea). The place names Edom and Idumea refer to a land of red people. Some of Abaham’s descendants are described as "red" or "ruddy "in the Bible.

After David became king, he brought the Ark "from the house of Abinadab, that was in Gibeah” (Saul's hometown) to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6:1-12). However, for three months the Ark rested in David’s hometown of Bethlehem on the property of Obed-Edom.

Genesis 36:31 states that there were kings in Edom long before there was a king in Israel. This suggests the antiquity of David's royal lineage. That lineage is traced back to Abraham whose territory was entirely in ancient Edom.

Related reading: Why Women Were Never Priests; Hebrew Rulers with Two Wives; The Wives' Settlements Mark the Boundaries; The Influence of Early Hebrew Women; Cousin Brides Among the Hebrew; Reading Genesis as Verifiable History

Reading Genesis as Verifiable History

 

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

Chapters 1-11 of Genesis often are called "Prehistory" in the sense that the persons and events detailed in these chapters supposedly took place before the invention of writing. This is an erroneous assumption because numerous scripts existed before the time of Adam and Eve (c.5000 BC). Among them are Vinča scripts believed to be the earliest form of writing, predating ancient Nilotic and Sumerian writing by thousands of years. What is known of these signs is limited because the inscriptions are short and found mainly on clay burial objects such as the one shown here.

Three 7300-year tablets with incised Vinča scripts were discovered in 1961 at a Neolithic site in the village of Tărtăria, Romania. One is shown above. The tablets were buried with the burnt, broken, and disarticulated bones of an adult male. 

Ancient Nilotic scripts date to c.4000 BC and were the work of priest scribes. Most of the surviving texts appear on the walls of tombs or monuments. Some of these have been collected and translated to English. (See The Ancient Pyramid Texts).

Sumerian scripts date to c.3400 BC and appear on clay tablets. Sumerian royal scribes kept records of transactions, trade agreements, laws, and treaties. Their cuneiform writing was created by making wedge-shaped indentations in clay tablets using a reed stylus.

Akkadian scripts date to c.2500 BC (500 years before Abraham). These were written using cuneiform, a script adopted from the Sumerians using wedge-shaped symbols pressed in wet clay.

All of these languages predate the alphabetic Proto-Canaanite scripts which date from c.1700-1500 BC. The oldest known Paleo-Hebrew scripts date to c.1000 BC. The early Hebrew (5000-2000 BC) did not speak Hebrew or use the Hebrew script.

If we conceive of history as a written phenomenon, Genesis 1-11 clearly cannot be described as prehistory. It is about people and events between 5000-2000 BC when writing existed among various populations.  

"Primeval History" is another Misnomer

Another misleading description of the early chapters of Genesis is "Primeval History." Today much information is available about humans who lived many millennia before the historical Adam and Eve (C.5000 BC). Some fossil remains of archaic humans date to over 3 million years. Archaeological discoveries verify that humans gravitated to the ancient water systems of Africa where they fished using barbed harpoons and hooks made from the jaw bones of crocodiles and from mammal bones. The flood of Noah came during one of the last great inundations of the African Humid Period. We know where and when Noah lived and the type of boats he used. Discoveries at Nekhen on the Nile verify that this was a site of Horite Hebrew worship as early as 4000 BC. Nimrod's extensive construction projects took place during the peak of Sumerian city and monument building. In other words, the term "primeval" can no longer be applied to the narratives of Genesis because they come from a time well after 2500 BC.

Relatively Recent Literature

The first three chapters of Genesis have close affinity with the creation and origin narratives of Africa. The themes of those chapters find their closest parallels in African stories. This should not surprise us since Abraham's Hebrew ancestors came out of the Nile Valley. The oldest known site of Horite Hebrew worship was a Nekhen, and there were Horite and Sethite mounds the length of the Nile River.

The first eleven chapters of Genesis also resonate to some of the later literary motifs of the Ancient Near East. The story of the first human pair in a garden, a devasting flood, a struggle with a serpent, and a quest for immortality are echoed in portions of the Babylonian poem Enūma Eliš and in the Gilgamesh Epic.

Genesis chapters 1-11 constitute a History of the Early Hebrew

Chapters 1-11 provide data about the religious beliefs and the social structure of the early Hebrew (5000-2000 BC). Early Hebrew rulers are listed in Genesis 4, 5, 10, 11, 25 and 36. Abraham enters the picture in Chapter 12. Analysis of the marriage and ascendancy pattern of these rulers indicates that they are historical persons and that they are all members of the Hebrew ruler-priest caste.

The Hebrew are not listed in the Genesis 10 ethnography because the Table of Nations does not recognize castes. It does mention some Hebrew clans, however. Among them are the clans of Shem, Ham, Japheth and many of their descendants. Some of them are shown on this diagram.

Some argue that the term "Hebrew" is derived from the name Eber, but that is not the supported by the biblical and linguistic data. The term comes from the ancient Akkadian abru, meaning priest. The Hebrew ruler-priests were widely dispersed before the time of Abraham (c.2000 BC). This map shows the regions into which they dispersed.

If this interests you, I recommend my book The First Lords of the Earth: An Anthropological Study. It dives into the history of the early Hebrew in great detail and reveals that Genesis is verifiable history. The sequel The First Ladies: An Anthropological Study will be available November 2024.

Related reading: BIBLICAL ANTHROPOLOGY: Hebrew Names and Titles; Hebrew, Israelite or Jew?; The Adam and Eve of History; Artifacts of Great Antiquity; Why Nekhen is Anthropologically Significant

Should the Babies of Christian Parents be Circumcised?

 

An illustration of a 4300-year tomb relief at Ankhmaho, Saqqara showing circumcision. 

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

Circumcision existed before the time of Abraham (c. 2000 BC). It was performed as early as 4000 BC among the Horite and Sethite Hebrew who maintained separate temples and shrines along the Nile River. This has been verified by temple texts and images dated to 4000 BC that show priests circumcising young men. (4000 BC is before Egypt emerged as a political entity.) Since Abraham was of the Hebrew ruler-priest caste, circumcision for him and his household was a received tradition.

Circumcision is one of the customs associated with the early Hebrew, a ruler-priest caste. Other customs include animal sacrifice, concern about ritual purity, dietary restrictions, caste endogamy, ministry at temples and shrines, and sacred moral codes.

There are three references to circumcision in the Bible that tell us about this practice. The first concerns Moses' cousin wife, Zipporah. While traveling to Egypt, she circumcised her son with a flint knife. She accused Moses, saying, "You are truly a bridegroom of blood to me!" She added, "A bridegroom of blood because of the circumcision." (Exodus 4:25-26)

It appears that Zipporah was angry about having to perform a rite that should have been performed by her priest father back in Midian. This is because, among the Hebrew, the firstborn son of the cousin wife belonged to the household of his maternal grandfather.

Another reference concerns God's command to Abraham to circumcise all the males of his household (Gen. 17:10-14). This account reflects the covenant theology of a later period. As a Hebrew, Abraham would have been circumcised as a young man while he was living in Mesopotamia. This was the custom among the early Hebrew (4200-2000 BC).

Finally, there is the ambiguous account of the renewal of the covenant whereby Joshua was to circumcise the "people" a second time. Presumably, the circumcision was performed on uncircumcised boys who had been born during the wanderings of the clan of Jacob (Israelites). 

At that time the Lord said to Joshua, "Make flint knives and circumcise the people of Israel again the second time." So Joshua made flint knives and circumcised the people of Israel at Gibeath ha-aralot (Josh. 5:2-3). This appears to be an explanation for Ha-aralot, which means a "hill of foreskins." It is a reference to an uncircumcised people. 

Some considerations

Christian parents have asked whether or not they should have their infant sons circumcised. I offer these considerations.

In as much as Christians are grafted into the faith of Abraham the Hebrew, circumcision is appropriate.

In as much as Christians are not under the Law of Moses, parents should not feel compelled to circumcise their infant sons.

In as much as the Apostolic Tradition poses Baptism using the Trinitarian Formula as the Christian equivalent to circumcision, all Christian parents should have their children baptized, thereby making them members of the mystical Body of Christ.

Related reading: Baptism in the Teaching of Paul; Circumcision Debated; Cousin Brides Among the Hebrew; The Substance of Abraham's Faith

The Dispersion of the Early Hebrew

 

       Map produced by Daniel Todd

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

The Hebrew were widely dispersed before Abraham's time (c.2000 BC). They were in the region of Lake Chad, the Nile Valley, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Eurasia, and the Indus Valley.

Nekhen on the Nile is the oldest known site of Horite Hebrew worship. It is marked on the map by a star. Nekhen's sister city, Nekheb, sat on the opposite side to the Nile River. Both were shrine cities with Hebrew priests. A great deal is known about the Horite and Sethite mounds from texts dating to as early as 4200 years ago.

The historical Adam and Eve lived around 5000-4800 BC in a vast well-watered region called Eden. Genesis 2 describes Eden as a lush riverine region that extended from the sources of the Nile in Ethiopia and Uganda to the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia (C on the map). The early Hebrew lived throughout Eden.

The firstborn son of Adam and Eve was Cain (Gen. 4). He was sent away and established a settlement "east of Eden" (Gen. 4:16). He named that settlement for his son Enoch, a royal title. Cain's descendants, the Kenites, are found in the land of Kenan which is the land of Canaan כנען, pronounced kena'an.

Noah was one of the descendants of Adam and Eve. Different accounts of Noah are given in Genesis chapter 6-8. He probably ruled in the region of Lake Chad (A on the map). This is the only place on earth that the natives call Noah's homeland - Bornu (Borno/Benue), meaning "land of Noah." The local Kanuri people call Lake Chad Buhar Nuhu, meaning "Sea of Noah." When Noah lived the Sahara was wet and green. The Lake Chad Basin was prone to flooding. The oldest known canoe, the "Dufuna boat," was found in this region. This is a photograph of that 8000-year mahogany dugout.

One of Noah's descendants was Nimrod (Gen. 10), a son of Kush. Nimrod left Kush (modern day Sudan) and established his territory on the Euphrates River around 3500 BC (Gen. 10). He married a Sumerian princess, the daughter of King Asshur.

The practice of marrying high-status women to form political alliances and to become established in a new territory is illustrated by Nimrod’s marriage to a Sumerian princess. Nimrod was a Kushite kingdom builder and his marriage to Asshur’s daughter is evidence of the close connection between the rulers of the Nile Valley and the rulers of Mesopotamia, two early riverine civilizations.

Another of Noah's descendants was Heth (Gen. 10). The Hittites of Canaan and Anatolia (C on the map) are Heth's Hebrew descendants.

Abraham was one of Nimrod’s descendants. Around 2000 BC, Abraham controlled the water systems at Hebron and Beersheba and the wells that he dug in Gerar. His proper heir was Isaac and Isaac's proper heir was Esau. Jacob was sent to serve his maternal uncle, a common practice among the early Hebrew. The sending away of non-ascendant sons drove the Hebrew dispersion into many regions.

The clans of Joktan and Sheba were also Hebrew. They settled in southern Arabia. This map shows the Joktanite clans of Arabia.

The widely dispersed Hebrew ruler-priests controlled commerce on sections of the major water systems. They traded as far as Pakistan and the Indus River Civilization. By the time Nimrod married a daughter of Asshur, long-distance trade had become a source of wealth for the Mesopotamian lords and ladies. Ships coming from Bahrain (Sumerian "Dilmun") brought wool, gold, copper, lapis lazuli, and carnelian to the Sumerian cities of Ur, Nippur, and Uruk (Erech). Archaeologists discovered a 4,000-year-old boat at Uruk. The boat was constructed of organic materials, probably marsh reeds, and covered in bitumen, a tar-like substance used for waterproofing. This technique was used in the construction of Noah’s ark (Gen. 6:14).

As early as 7000 BC, the island of Bahrain (F on the map) served as a major trade depot with its own commercial seal. Ancient documents speak of Dilmun's trade in gold, silver, ivory, sesame oil, wool, carnelian beads, lapis lazuli, and copper. One document details a cargo of eighteen tons of refined copper purchased in Dilmun. Dilmun was a maritime connection between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley.

Sumerian ships brought cargo to Dilmun and to port cities in the Indus Valley (G on the map). Ships sailed southeast on the Tigris or Euphrates to the Persian Gulf, making stops at the port of Dilmun, passing the Oman Peninsula, and entering the Arabian Sea. From there the ships sailed northeast on the Indus River to Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Trade in lapis lazuli and carnelian beads ran between Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and Afghanistan as early as 4000 B.C. Indus seals with Harappan inscriptions have been found in Mesopotamia. Indus pottery and seals have been found along the maritime routes between the Indian subcontinent and Mesopotamia. Note the close resemblance of Indus Valley and Nilotic inscriptions found on pottery.

The early Hebrew rulers sent their merchants along ancient trade routes that ran from the Nile to Arabia and Canaan, and from Mesopotamia to modern Bahrain. Routes extended into the Indus Valley and as far north as China. There is considerable evidence that the religious beliefs of the early Hebrew influenced the populations among whom they lived. This explains the common religious practices and solar symbolism among the diverse populations of the Fertile Crescent and the Ancient Near East.

The term "Hebrew" is derived from the ancient Akkadian word for priest - abru. They were a ruler-priest caste that married only within their caste (caste endogamy). The caste structure of the early Hebrew meant that wherever they lived they were identifiable as Hebrew. It is possible to speak of Egyptian Hebrew, Canaanite Hebrew, Kushite Hebrew, and Mesopotamian Hebrew. The Hebrew living in the Nile Valley were kin to the Hebrew living in Canaan, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia.

The Hebrew priests were in the service of the early kingdom builder which are described in Genesis as the "mighty men of old" and "heroes of renown." As new territories were established and as older territories expanded, the Hebrew went where they were appointed to serve at royal temples and river shrines. Many Hebrew women ministered to women at the river shrines which were places of healing, purification, and prayer, especially for women struggling with infertility.

All this movement happened long before Judaism emerged as a world religion after about 580 BC. None of the people mentioned above were Jews. They were Hebrew, and there were many Hebrew clans.

Related reading: The Ministry of Hebrew Woman at the Sun Cities; Temple Women; Horite and Sethite Mounds; The Hebrew Rulers of Genesis; The Roots of the Gospel are in Africa

The Hebrew Rulers of Genesis

 

Naamah named her firstborn son Lamech after her father, Lamech the Elder (Gen. 4). Lamech the Younger was one of Methuselah's sons (Gen. 5). 

According to the Bible scholar Umberto Cassuto, the name "Lamech" is related to the Akkadian word lumakku, meaning “priest” (Commentary on Genesis, Vol. 1, p. 233). Further, Lamech is related to the Akkadian word malku (ruler-priest). It also is related to the Hebrew word melek, meaning “king”. 

 

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

The men listed in the Genesis “begats” were of high social standing in the ancient world. They were rulers, priests, and kingdom builders. Their successors ruled according to a long-established ascendancy pattern. Having an heir was extremely important, and two wives increased the likelihood of having a male heir. The Hebrew rulers who controlled territories maintained two wives in separate settlements usually on a north-south axis.

The marriages of the Hebrew rulers cannot be considered "biblical" and cited as models for Bible believers today. The Hebrew marriage pattern pertains to kingdom builders long before Judaism emerged. These were regnal marriages involving a bride and a groom from related Hebrew clans or between half-siblings. Royal marriages are not like the marriages of commoners because of political complexities and the need for an undisputed heir. Further, the kingdom to which Christians are committed is the Kingdom of Christ our God.

The firstborn sons of the two wives had different rights according to the Hebrew hierarchy of sons. The firstborn son of the first wife was the proper heir to his father’s holdings. The firstborn son of the second wife (usually a cousin) was to serve in the territory of his maternal grandfather.

The two-wife pattern pertained to rulers only, not to lower status Hebrew men. Two wives helped to "build up the house" of the ruler and strengthened the house of the cousin bride's father. The firstborn son of the first wife (usually a half-sister) ascended to rule in place of his father, and the firstborn son of the second wife (usually a patrilineal cousin) became a high official in the service of his maternal grandfather.

 

 
The early Hebrew regarded territorial expansion and many children as a sign of the Creator’s blessing upon them. This is evident in Abraham’s petition before God concerning his need for a proper heir (Gen. 15) to rule over his territory in ancient Edom. That territory extended between the settlements of his two wives, Sarah in Hebron and Keturah in Beersheba. Both locations are shown on the map above. 

Related reading: Sarah's Story; Exploring Isaac's Story; Royal Hebrew Sons and Their Maternal Uncles; Cousin Brides Among the Hebrew; Features of the Social Structure of the Biblical Hebrew; The Dispersion of the Early Hebrew

Learn About the Early Hebrew

 

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

The application of kinship analysis, a tool of cultural anthropology, has proven extremely useful in identifying the features of the social structure of the biblical Hebrew, the ruler-priest caste that believed in the Father God who has a son and whose Spirit generates life. Understanding their social structure sheds light on many of the more difficult passages of Scripture. Therefore, I recommend my book "The First Lords of the Earth: An Anthropological Study" (Amazon).

 
Chapters 1 and 2 explain the empirical, data gathering method of Biblical Anthropology.

 
Chapters 3-5 present what is known about the early Hebrew (4000-2000 BC), drawing on the available data. Specifically, these chapters look at the Hebrew caste and moiety system, the oldest known site of Hebrew worship along the Nile, and what the Hebrew believed.

 
Chapter 6 clarifies that the social structure of the early Hebrew was not patriarchal, as is often claimed, and chapters 7-13 demonstrate the gender balance of their social structure using the biblical data.

I was able to make a rather complex subject easy to understand. I hope you will buy the book and discover answers to some questions, such as:

• Was the social structure of the biblical Hebrew patriarchal?
• Who were the Horite Hebrew and the Sethite Hebrew?
• Where is the oldest known site of Horite Hebrew worship?
• Were the Hebrew in Canaan before Abraham's time?
• Why did many high-status Hebrew men have two wives?
• What was the difference in status between wives and concubines?
• What types of authority did the biblical Hebrew recognize?
• How did the Hebrew acute observation of the order of creation inform their reasoning?
• If Judaism is NOT the faith of the early Hebrew, what did they believe?

I hope you will find the book helpful and informative. The sequel describes the lives of the "First Ladies of the Earth" and will be available in August 2024.

The Historical Eve

 

Badarian Eve (mortuary figurine), housed at the Louvre.

Dr. Alice C. Linsley

The historical Eve was not the first woman on earth. Instead, she was a founding mother of the early Hebrew ruler-priest caste. She was a high-status woman with servants and resources. She would have influenced the style of dress and adornments of women of lesser status. She probably sought high status wives for her sons from among her Hebrew people.

Analysis of the kinship pattern of the rulers listed in Genesis 4 and 5 indicates that two of Eve’s daughters-in-law were the daughters of a ruler named Enoch/Enosh (Enos in the Septuagint). Enoch is a royal title. The word is derived from the ancient Egyptian anochi, pertaining to the first-person singular. The term is related to the ancient Akkadian anaku which is a reference to the royal first person. The title also relates to royal succession. Among the Igbo, anochie means “a replacer” or “direct heir to a throne.”

Eve was the mother of Cain and Seth who married their cousins, the daughters of a ruler named Enoch. Eve’s firstborn Cain is described as an early city builder and Seth is the founder of the Sethite Hebrew who are mentioned in texts from 2400 BC. This means that the historical Eve probably lived between c.5000-4500 BC.

The historical Eve lived in the vast well-water region called Eden. The term Eden derives from the Akkadian term edinu, which refers to a fertile plain or a flood plain. According to the description in Genesis 2:10-14, Eden extended from the Pishon and Gihon at the sources of the Nile to the Tigris and Euphrates. The region is described as rich in gold and bdellium. Bdellium is a semi-transparent oleo-gum resin extracted from Commiphora wightii and from Commiphora africana. These trees grow in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and other parts of sub-Saharan Africa.

Given the biblical data, it is likely that Eve lived in the Nile Valley. That is where her son Seth was established as a regional chief. Later this region became known as Ta-Seti, meaning “Land of the Bow.” That was the Egyptian description of Nubia (Nub - gold) where hunters used bows and arrows. They are shown on Nubian rock art dating to 4000-2500 BC.

Eve's Sons  

Eve’s firstborn son was Cain (Gen. 4). He left his homeland and settled “east of Eden” (Gen. 4:16-26), probably on the east side of the Red Sea. That would be the land of Canaan where Cain’s metal working descendants lived. They are known as the “Kenites.” The names Cain, Canaan, Kenan, and Kenite are linguistically equivalent.

One of Cain’s daughters married her cousin Enosh and named their firstborn son Kenan, after her father. This is an example of the cousin bride’s naming prerogative, a feature of the marriage and ascendancy pattern of the early Hebrew.

Eve's other living son was Seth (Gen. 5). He was a son in the image of his father Adam (Gen. 5:3), meaning he was a red man. The Hebrew language scholar, Jeff A. Benner, explains: Dam is the "red" blood, adamah is the "red" ground, edom is the color "red" and adam is the "red" man. Adam is a reference to the color of blood (dam in Hebrew). That means at least some of Seth’s descendants, known as the Sethite Hebrew, were also red.

The Sethites ranged from the Nile to the Eastern Desert of Egypt, and some were living in the land of Canaan. The ancient Egyptians referred to a man of the Nubian Desert as An-ti Set. They called the dwellers in the Eastern Desert of Egypt An-tiu Sett, according to the archaeologist E. A. Wallis Budge. Budge claims in his Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary (1920) that the An-tiu Sett lived as far north as the land of Canaan. This is not surprising because Seth’s descendants living in Canaan would have intermarried with Cain’s descendants living in Canaan.

Many Sethites served at the sacred high places (mounds) along the Nile and are mentioned in the Ancient Pyramid Texts (2400-2200 BC). One of those places was Nekhen where this figurine of red Seth was found. He has the head of a hippo and the body of a man. Perhaps the hippo was the totem of the Sethite Hebrew, and the falcon was the totem of the Horite Hebrew.

Seth as a red hippo

Nekhen is the oldest known site of Horite worship (c.4200 BC). At Nekhen archaeologists found hippos buried in the elite cemeteries (Nekhen News, Vol. 25, 2013, p. 20). They also found numerous carved and sculpted figurines of hippos, some with red coloration. They concluded that hippo imagery is "linked to local elites" (Nekhen News Vol. 27, 2015, pp. 8-9).

Eve’s Cultural Milieu

Eve’s cultural context would have been like that of the Badarian culture (5000-4000 BC). The Badarian culture extended at least as far as between El Badari in the Lower Nile south to Nekhen in the Upper Nile.

The Nilotic culture of that period was agricultural and cattle-herding. The contents of storage facilities included wheat, barley, lentils, and tubers. Fishing provided a substantial source of protein. Reed boats were used to transport produce and livestock. Dogs were used for hunting, and hunting was mainly the sport of the upper class.

Water resources were more than sufficient to sustain the Nilotic populations of Eve’s time. The Nile supplied a year-round water supply of water. In addition to that, there was seasonal rainfall draining from the mountains into the lower elevations. There were many wadi systems terminating in or near the Nile floodplain with water-retaining Pleistocene sands and gravels that supported vegetation, small trees, and shrubs. The local populations were able to draw water from natural springs fed by the Nubian Aquifer which runs under the Sahara west of the Nile.

The burial practices reveal social stratification with separate elite cemeteries. Burial sites of the more wealthy contained grave goods such as green malachite palettes, shells, flint tools, amulets in the shape of the antelope and hippopotamus, ostrich eggshell vessels, hippo tusks, and jewelry made of ivory, quartz, or copper.

The Badarian rulers traded with people of other regions. The turquoise and glazed steatite beads found in the Badarian territory were imported. Upper class Badarian men wore beaded belts. Some rulers had ripple knapped knives with decorative handles.

Mythical Eve versus Historical Eve

The person of Eve is surrounded by the observations of Bible commentators and theologians making it difficult to separate the historical Eve from the Eve of the Genesis creation stories. The mythical Eve is wrapped in profound theological speculation about the origin of sin and death, the presence of evil, and the necessity of divine intervention. The implications of Eve's disobedience have probably been plumbed to the depth. It is time to investigate her historicity using an empirical method. Strangely, most who regard Adam and Eve as historical figures never inquire about the historical Eve. It is as if they were afraid to discover the truth.

The historical Eve was the Hebrew mother of two surviving sons, Cain and Seth. Both sons were clan chiefs and rulers over territories. Further, their descendants intermarried according to an endogamous marriage pattern that was well established before Eve's time. Clearly, Adam, Eve, and their offspring were not the first humans on earth.

Related reading: Three Portraits of Adam; Adam Was a Red Man; The Sethites and the Red Hippo; Horite and Sethite Mounds; An Anthropologist Looks at Genesis 5