The Patriarch Ishmael

 

Ishmael and Isaac bury their father Abraham 

From the 1728 Figures de la Bible; illustrated by Gerard Hoet (1648-1733)

Alice C. Linsley

Ishmael (Yishmael) is recognized as one of Abraham's sons in Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. He was born to Hagar (Hājar), an Egyptian concubine (Gen. 16:3). According to the marriage and ascendancy pattern of Abraham the Hebrew, this meant that Ishmael was not Abraham's proper heir. The proper heir would be Isaac, the first-born son of Abraham's first wife (and half-sister) Sarah. 

Ishmael was a sent-away son, like Abraham. The circumstances of his being sent-away vary in the book of Genesis. According to one account, Ishmael and Hagar were sent away ("cast out") because of Sarah's jealousy (Gen. 21:10). This account cannot be verified and seems to rely on Talmudic sources. According to another account, Abraham's eight sons were given gifts and sent away from Isaac's territory before Abraham died (Gen. 25:5,6). This account aligns well with the biblical kinship data.

Ishmael was ethnically Egyptian since ethnicity was traced through his Egyptian mother. Ishmael married an Egyptian (Gen. 21:21) as the Egyptians have been particular about preserving their ethnic identity. (Even today the government of Egypt makes it illegal for Egyptian men to marry Jewish women. To be an ethnic Jew one must be born of a Jewish mother.) 

Hagar would have been of a high social status to serve as a handmaiden to the Hebrew princess, Sarah. Another handmaiden and concubine, according to the Septuagint, was Masek. Her son was Eliezer (dm/Masek means son/blood of Masek, not Damascus). Genesis 25:6 makes it clear that Abraham had more than one concubine. The Hebrew literally speaks of Abraham's sons by concubines (Speiser on Genesis, Anchor Bible, p. 197).

If the pattern of Hagar and Masek is the same as the pattern of Jacob's concubines, Bilhah and Zilpah, then Ishmael and Eliezar were chiefs over settlements and were the heads of clans along with Keturah's sons Zimran, Jokshan/Joktan, Medan, Midian, Yishbak, and Shuah (Gen. 25; Also see the Joktanite Clans).

Ishmael is regarded as a patriarch in Islam and should be considered such in Christianity and Judaism. His twelve "tribes" parallel the twelve clans/tribes of Jacob and the twelve clans/tribes of Terah's proper heir, Nahor (Gen. 22:20-24). These are Ishmael's sons, and their names by their dwelling places and settlements: twelve chieftans of as many tribes: the firstborn of Ishmael, Nebajoth, then Kadar, Adbeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadar, Tema, Jetur, Naphish and Kedemah (Gen. 25:12-16). 

It appears that the first-born sons of wives ruled territories while the first-born sons of concubines ruled settlements in obedience to their ruling brothers. This is similar to the "nomes" of Egypt, where each was ruled by a tribal chieftain whose allegiance was to the higher ranking ruler. 

Genesis 25:18 describes the extensive region controlled by the Ishmaelite chiefs: "from Havilah, by Shur, which is close to (opposite) Egypt …" The mention of Havilah is problematic since it is the southern limit of ancient Eden (Gen. 2:11) in the Upper Nile, and also the region in southern Paletsine where Saul defeated Amalek: "from Havilah as far as Shur, which is east of Egypt" (1 Sam. 15:7). (Ha'vilah likely means a place where waters part to form a V, or a spreading out of land, as in a valley.)

Some maps show the Ishmaelite terriotry extending from Shur to Havilah, as in this map.

There is no extra-biblical evidence to verify that the Ishmaelite clans were nomads. Instead, the evidence indicates that they were traders and merchants with their own settlements. This explains why they are associated with the Midianite traders in Genesis 37:25, 28 and 36. This, with the location described as "opposite" Egypt, suggests another possibility. The Ishmaelites may be identified with the Dedanite traders who resided opposite Egypt. If so, the Ishamealites' territory might correspond to that of ancient Dedan as shown on this map. 

This second map aligns with the data that places the Ishmaelites among their kinsmen (Jewish Study Bible, p. 53) and having settlements over against all his [Egyptian] people (Oxford Annotated Bible, p. 30). 

This means Ishmael the Egyptian ruled over territory along the Red Sea opposite Egypt, extending north to the Shur Desert. The clan of one of his sons Tema is mentioned in an inscription of Tiglath-pilesar III in association with the clan of Sheba (shown on the second map).

As for his hostility to his kinsmen, the Hebrew in Genesis 25:18 is uncertain. Here are possible readings: "they ranged/camped among their kinsmen;" "made forays against his various kinsmen;" "fell upon" his kinsmen, and "held his own" against his kinsmen. Among merchants there is competition for customers and efforts to control lucrative trade routes. 

As a son of Abraham the Hebrew, Ishmael likely served the same High God as his father and probably embraced the substance of Abraham's faith. As an Egyptian, he also would have embraced belief in bodily resurrection. In the Hebrew his name has the Canaanite Y - Yishmael, a mark indicating divine appointment to rule. Indeed, God did bless Ishamel, as his father requested (Gen. 17:18). The evidence is sufficient to view Ishmael as an affluent and influential patriarch who had much in common with the Horite Hebrew ancestors of some Jews and some Arabs.

Related reading: The Social Structure of the Biblical Hebrew; The Calling of Abraham; Abraham's Sons; Sent-Away Sons; The Afro-Arabian Dedanites; Some Jews and Some Arabs Have Horite Ancestry; Isaac's Wealth

The Years of Waiting for the Promised Heir

Now Sarai, Abram’s wife, had borne him no children. But she had an Egyptian slave named Hagar; so she said to Abram, “The Lord has kept me from having children. Go, sleep with my slave; perhaps I can build a family through her.”

Abram agreed to what Sarai said. So after Abram had been living in Canaan ten years, Sarai his wife took her Egyptian slave Hagar and gave her to her husband to be his wife. He slept with Hagar, and she conceived. (Genesis 16:1-4)


Alice C. Linsley

Abraham is a pivotal figure of history. He is a sent-away son who established control over a territory that extended between Kiriath-Arba (Hebron) and Beersheba. His territory was entirely in the region of ancient Edom (Idumea) and he was kin to the Horite rulers of Edom listed in Genesis 36.

Abraham's first wife was Sarah, his half-sister. Sarah resided in Hebron. His second wife was Keturah, one of his patrilineal cousins. Keturah resided in Beersheba. Both Hebron and Beersheba were in the land of Edom, called "Idumea" by the Greeks. Idumea means "land of red people." Abraham's territory extended between the settlements of his two wives and was entirely in Edom.

It was the norm for Habiru rulers to have two wives. They often had two concubines also. Abraham's concubines were Hagar, the mother is Ishmael, and Masek, the mother of Eliezer. Neither of these sons was the "proper heir" to Abraham according to the Habiru marriage and ascendancy pattern. Eliezer was Abraham's heir according to Horite law, only until Issac was born. The proper heir for the Horite Habiru rulers was always the first born son of the half-sister wife.

According to Genesis 16, Sarah was barren and had given up hope of having a child. This is after she and Abraham had been living in Canaan for 10 years. During those years Abraham had already taken his second wife, Keturah. She born Joktan (Yaqtan), Abraham's first born son. However, Joktan was not Abraham's proper heir. As the son of the cousin bride, Joktan was named after his maternal grandfather in whose kingdom he would serve as a high ranking official. According to Genesis 25, Keturah bore Abraham six sons: Joktan, Yisbak, Midian, Zimran, Medan, and Shuah. The name Yishbak means “sent away.”

Abraham had four first born sons: Joktan, Ishmael (Yishmael), Eliezer, and Isaac (Yitzak), probably born in that order. Joktan became the head of the Joktanite tribes of Arabia. Yismael became the father of the Sinai Bedouins. His Paran settlement was on the way to Egypt as indicated by these words: This is the genealogy of Ishmael, Abraham’s son, whom Hagar the Egyptian, Sarah’s maidservant, bore to Abraham. And these were the names of the sons of Ishmael: the firstborn of Ishmael, Nebajoth, then Kadar, Adbeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadar, Tema, Jetur, Naphish and Kedemah. These were the sons of Ishmael and these were their names, by their towns and settlements… (Gen. 25:12-16).

No sons are named for Eliezer. He may have been a eunuch, not necessarily a castrated man, but perhaps one who is impotent, celibate, or not inclined to marry and procreate for legal reasons.

Yitzak fathered Jacob (Yacob/Yisrael), and Esau the Elder. Esau and Jacob were contemporaries of Seir the Horite, named in Genesis 36. The initial Y in these names indicates divine appointment by being overshadowed by the Sun. It is the symbol of the long horns of the bull and represents a solar cradle.

Clans related to Abraham's wife Keturah and her father Joktan the Edler

The first born sons ruled among the related clans of Horite Habiru. Abraham’s people. However, the first born sons of wives ranked above the first born sons of concubines. Joktan ranked over Eliezar, and Issac ranked over Ishmael. Joktan was a governor in the southern settlements of his maternal grandfather (Dedan, Ramaah and Sheba) and Isaac ruled the northern settlements of his father Abraham (Hebron, Beersheba, Gerar and Engedi).

Sarah's barren state would have caused her even greater misery after Abraham took his second wife and began to bear him sons. Here we find echoes of the Rachel-Leah conflict and the Hannah-Penninah conflict. In these narratives, the scorned or barren wife is vindicated by divine action on her behalf. Her long years of waiting were turned from sorrow to joy.

See the pattern? We await the return of the Promised Son, the Heir to the eternal kingdom. He has overcome death by death. He will turn our sorrow to joy and wipe away every tear.

Related reading: Who Was Abraham?; Abraham's Sons; Abraham's Complaint; The Urheimat of the Canaanite Y; Abraham's First Born Son; Edom and the Horites; The Barren and Grieving Rejoice

Philip Ochieng: Kushite Flight from Canaan

Philip Ochieng, a Kenyan contemporary of President Obama's father, relates how the Kalenjin, a Kushite people, once resided in Egypt and Canaan and fled before their oppressors. They claim to have fled oppression in Egyptian held lands and wandered for 40 years in the wildernesses of Sudan and northwestern Kenya where they encountered God at the sacred mountain El-gon (Mount of the Most High). There is linguistic evidence to support this. For example, the Kalenjin capital is Kericho which is Jericho. Read more of Ochieng's views on the Kalenjin here.

The Kalenjin were a warrior caste in ancient Egypt. They have been identified with the Midianites. Midian is a Kalenjin clan of Baringo district of Kenya. Kalenjin were identified by clan divisions, namely Sebei, Sabaot, Miot and Midian until modern times. Here we have a suggestion of a Sheba-Midian-Egyptian confederation. This may explain the confusion in Genesis 37 where we are told that Joseph was sold to a caravan of Ishmaelite/Egyptian merchants (verse 25) and Midianite merchants (verse 28).

The linguistic connection between ancient Egypt and the Kalenjin is evidenced in the correspondance of many common words. The ancient Egyptian word for country was kmt, which corresponds to the Kalenjin word kemet. In both languages ntr designates divinity. The Kalenjin were a hill country people who dwelt in the region of their sacred mountain "El-gon" in the Tororo (n-trr) Hills of eastern Uganda. From there they migrated to Egypt, where they stayed for thousands of years. Some migrated back to Kenya and Uganda. Others moved into Canaan and Mesopotamia.

The Kalenjin, like the Egyptians, regarded the sun as the emblem of the Creator. Their word Asiis refers to both God and the sun. This is also an ancient Egyptian name for the Creator and is found among other African tribes who originated in the Nile Valley. The Asante of Ghana are the people (nte) of As.

The Kalenjin appear to be one of many groups that moved from the Nile Valley into Canaan and Mesopotamia. This Kushite migration is referenced in Genesis 10 and confirmed by historical records of Sargon the Great, who is likely Nimrod, the son of Kush.

Today, it is estimated that 44% of the Kalinjin are Christian.


Related reading:  Nilo-Saharan and Saharo-Nubian Populations; The Urheimat of the Canaanite Y; The Migration of Abraham's Ancestors; Abraham's Kushite Ancestors; Sacred Mountains

Why Eliezer was Abraham's Heir

William Dyce's oil painting of Eliezer (1860) is on permanent exhibit at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts.



Alice C. Linsley


Abraham said, "O my Lord, what would you give me seeing that I am going to die accursed [Hebrew: ariri], and the one to inherit my household is Dam-Mesek." Genesis 15:2

The Hebrew is challenging as apparently there is an attempt at play on the sound ben meshek (meseq) with dam mesek, or more likely a parallel between the terms ben and dam. However, the two mean the same thing: the one born to Masek.

The reference to Masek as a "handmaid" is clear in the Orthodox Study Bible, based on the Septuagint. Genesis 15:2 reads: "And Abraham said, 'Lord, what will You give me, seeing I go childless, and the heir of my house is Eliezer of Damascus, the son of Masek, my domestic maid servant."

The "of Damascus" is probably redundant and a mistake, but the Orthodox Study Bible committee decided to leave the place name.

Eliezer was not Abraham's proper heir. That role was to the first-born son of the first wife, who was Sarah. Abraham had another first-born son by his second wife Keturah. However, in the marriage and ascendancy pattern of the Horite Hebrew, the first-born son of the second wife belonged to the household of his maternal grandfather.

Lacking a proper heir, the son of a concubine would be the rightful heir. As was the case with Jacob, Abraham had two concubines, Hagar and Masek. By these concubines, Abraham had two sons: Ishmael and Eliezer. Eliezer was the older of the two sons.

Isaac was born after the conversation Abraham had with God about Eliezer being the heir to Abraham's throne in Genesis 15. God reassures Abraham that he will have a son by Sarah. In the marriage and ascendancy pattern of the rulers among Abraham's people, the firstborn son of the half-sister wife ascended to the throne of his biological father. Sarah was Abraham's half-sister and their only child was Isaac, Abraham's proper heir.

Before Isaac was born, Abraham had a first-born son by his cousin wife Keturah. However, the first-born son of the cousin wife was to serve in the territory of his maternal grandfather, after whom he was named. Consider Lamech the Younger (Genesis 5) who was to serve Lamech the Elder (Genesis 4).

Ishmael already had been born, and would have been Abraham's heir by adoption according to Horite/Hurrian law. According to this practice, the concubine gave birth on the lap of the half-sister wife, as was the case with Hagar's delivery of Ishmael, whereby Sarah built a family through Hagar (Gen. 16:2). This was Sarah's plan.

By this time Abraham was well-established as a "mighty prince" (Gen. 23:6) among the clan of Canaan. Abraham's defeat of the kings who had attacked his Horite Hebrew people (Gen. 14:6) and he was served by Melchizedek, the ruler-priest of Salem (Genesis 14).

Abraham had two wives, as was the pattern for all high ranking Horite Hebrew (Terah, Abraham, Jacob, Elkanah, etc.) Sarah was Terah's daughter by one wife and Abraham was Terah's son by the other wife. This pattern of two wives meant that there were always two firstborn sons; one by the half-sister wife and the other by the cousin wife. The first-born son of the cousin wife served as a prime minister or vizier in the territory of his maternal grandfather, after whom he was titled/named. Likewise, Esau the Younger served Esau the Elder (Genesis 36).

The firstborn of the half-sister wife ascended to the throne of his biological father, so Isaac was Abraham's heir. However, he was not Abraham's firstborn. Neither was Ishmael. Ishmael was conceived late in Abraham's life, after Abraham had married Keturah. Keturah's firstborn son was Joktan (Yaqtan), the head of the Joktanite Tribes of Arabia. As Keturah was Abraham's cousin wife, Joktan ascended to the throne of his maternal grandfather. As Sarah was barren, Abraham was still desperate for an heir. This is when he prayed about having an heir and received the promise (Gen. 15:4) that a son would come from his own "loins" (meaning blood descent from him and his half-sister).

Eliezer was born of Masek before Ishamael was born of Hagar and this made him Abraham's only natural heir until Isaac was born. Here we have a glimpse into the complexity of the Horite Hebrew marriage and ascendancy pattern.

The name Eliezer/Eleazer appears twice in the Horite Hebrew ancestry of Jesus Christ.

Related reading: Abraham's Complaint; Abraham's Sons; Who Were the Horites?; The Marriage and Ascendency Pattern of Abraham's People; Abraham's Cousin Wife; Abraham's Concubines; Answers to More Questions

Ishmael was Not Abraham's Firstborn

Alice C. Linsley

According to the Septuagint (Greek Old Testament), Abraham had nine sons by 2 wives and 2 concubines. His proper heir was the firstborn son of his first wife, Sarah. That is why Isaac ruled over Abraham's territory after Abraham died. According to Scripture, Abraham's sons received gifts from their father and probably a priestly blessing as happened with Jacob and his sons.

Four of Abraham's sons were firstborn sons: Joktan, Ishmael, Eliezar and Isaac, probably in that birth order. It is very likely that Abraham also had daughters, but they are not named in Genesis since only ruling sons are named.

Here is a list of the sons born to Abraham by his two wives: Sarah and Keturah, and by his two concubines: Hagar and Masek.

Sarah, daughter of Terah the Aramean (Gen. 20:12)
Isaac (Yitzak)

Hagar the Egyptian (Sarah’s handmaid)
Ishmael (Yismael), who was Egyptian since race/ethnicity was traced through the mother, as is true even today among Semitic peoples.

Keturah, daughter of Joktan the Afro-Arabian (Gen. 25)
Yishbak
Joktan – probably Keturah’s firstborn son
Midian
Zimran
Medan
Shuah

Masek, the Aramean/Syrian (She was likely Keturah’s handmaid.)
Eliezar of Damascus



Tribal Confederations

Reviewing this list of names we note a pattern of alliterative pairs between three sons: Yitzak, Yismael and Yishbak. This triad represents a tribal unit. Other tribal units are Jubal, Jabal and Tubal; Og, Gog and Magog, and Uz, Buz and Huz. However, not all tribal units are designated by alliterative pairs.

When twin sons were born it was important to determine which breached first; thus the midwife’s use of the scarlet cord (Gen. 38:28). Some name pairs suggest twins, such as Perez and Zerah, Dishon and Dishan (Horites, according to Gen. 36:21), and Letush and Leum (Dedanites, according to Gen. 25:3). Dedan is where the oldest Arabic texts have been found.



To Each Firstborn Son a Territory or a Settlement

Abraham actually had four firstborn sons: Joktan, Yismael (Ishmael), Eliezar, and Yitzak (Isaac), probably born in that order, although it is possible that Yishbak was the firstborn son of Keturah, but apparently he was sent away, which is the meaning of his name.

Joktan became the head of the Joktanite tribes of Arabia. Yismael became the father of the Sinai Bedouins. No sons are named for Eliezar. Yitzak fathered Yisreal (Jacob), Esau the Elder and Yishbak the elder. Esau and Jacob were contemporaries of Seir the Horite (Gen. 36).

The firstborn sons of wives were ranked above the firstborn sons of concubines. So Joktan ranked over Eliezar, and Yitzak ranked over Yishmael. Joktan would rule over the southern settlements of his maternal grandfather (Dedan, Ramaah and Sheba) and Yitzak would rule the northern settlements of his father Abraham (Hebron, Bethel and Shechem).

Analysis of the Genesis genealogical data indicates that the firstborn son of the cousin/niece wife ascended to the throne of his maternal grandfather. This is indicated by the consistent pattern of the cousin bride naming her firstborn son after her father. So Lamech (Gen. 5), the firstborn of Methuselah, was named ascended to the throne of Lamech the Elder (Gen. 4). Joktan, the firstborn son of Keturah, ascended to the throne of Keturah’s father Joktan. Esau, the husband of Oholibamah (Gen. 36) ascended to the throne of Esau the Elder, the son of Isaac.

The firstborn son of the half-sister wife ascended to the throne of his biological father. So Isaac was the heir of Abraham’s territory.

Going back to before Abraham, we find that Ramah and Nimrod ruled separate territories that had once been united under their father Kush. Asshur and Arpachshad ruled separate territories that had once been united under their father Shem. This is the marriage pattern by which the Kushite rulers spread quickly across the ancient Afro-Asiatic Dominion which extended from west central Africa to the Ganges River.

Likewise, Eber’s sons Peleg and Joktan ruled separate territories that had once been unified under their father. The division of territory in Peleg’s generation is noted in Genesis 10:25: “…it was in his time that the earth was divided.” This marks the emergence of two distinct Afro-Asiatic groups: Aramaens and Afro-Arabians.

Arabic, Hebrew and Aramaic are in the Afro-Asiatic language family. Old Arabian script appears as early as the eighth century BC, with regional dialects across the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant. The greatest concentration of Old Arabic texts is found at Dedan. Dedan's father was Abraham's son Joktan. Dedan's brother was Sheba the Younger. The Dedanites intermarried with the Egyptian Ishmaelites.


Firstborn Sons of Concubines

Had Sarah remained without a son, the rightful heir to Abraham’s throne would have been Eliezar (Gen. 15). The Masoretic and Greek texts do not agree on Eliezar. The Septuagint (Greek Old Testament) clearly states that he was a son of Abraham by Masek, but this is not found in the Masoretic text. This suggests a peculiar characteristic of this unique kinship pattern: the assignment of territories to the firstborn sons of concubines. If the pattern of Hagar and Masek is the same as the pattern of Bilhah and Zilpah, then Ishmael and Eliezar received settlements to govern and were included as the heads of clans along with Joktan, Yitzak, Yishbak, Midian, Medan, Zimran and Shuah.

Concerning Ishmael, his assignment of a settlement in or near Paran on the way to Egypt is indicated by these words: “This is the genealogy of Ishmael, Abraham’s son, whom Hagar the Egyptian, Sarah’s maidservant, bore to Abraham. And these were the names of the sons of Ishmael: the firstborn of Ishmael, Nebajoth, then Kadar, Adbeel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadar, Tema, Jetur, Naphish and Kedemah. These were the sons of Ishmael and these were their names, by their towns and settlements…” (Genesis 25:12-16).

It appears that firstborn sons of wives ruled territories while the firstborn sons of concubines ruled settlements as regional rulers in obedience to their brother kings. This is similar to the "nomes" of Egypt, where each was ruled separately by a tribal chieftain whose allegiance was to the high king or pharaoh. This sheds light on the relationship between Jacob's 12 sons, called the “12 Tribes of Israel.” The apportionment of land and settlements among Jacob’s sons likely followed this pattern with the firstborn sons of Rachel and Leah receiving territories and the firstborn sons of Jacob’s concubines receiving settlements within those territories.


Ishmael the Egyptian

Ishmael was Egyptian since race/ethnicity was traced through the mother and his mother was Egyptian. Ishmael married an Egyptian (Gen. 21:21) so his children were also Egyptian. That ethnic identity is traced through the mother is recognized even today, which is why the government of Egypt has made it illegal for Egyptian men to marry Jewish women.

Of the Ishmaelite clans, Tema or Teman is especially significant. We have a good deal of information about the Temanites. Jeremiah 49 links the Temanites with the Dedanites. According to Genesis 10:7 and 25:3, Dedan was descended from Kush and from Abraham by his cousin wife, Keturah. Dedan's father was Abraham's son Joktan. Dedan's brother was Sheba the Younger.

Isaiah 21:13 alludes to the "caravans of Dedanites" in Arabia, and Ezekiel 27:20 speaks of Dedan as supplying Tyre with precious things.

Dedan is associated with Uz in the hill country of Edom, Job's homeland. This is Uz the Elder, son of Nahor, whose grandson (by his daughter) was Uz the son of Dishan (I Chron. 1:42). Dishan was a son of Seir the Horite. Uz the Younger was Seir's grandson.

Eliphaz, the son of Esau the Elder, married Timna and he is called a "Temanite" in the Book of Job. Clearly, the name Timna has the alternative spelling Tema. Here is Seir's Horite family diagrammed using the data from Genesis 36:

Job of Uz was certainly a Horite and likely a contemporary of Esau the Younger. Uz, Buz and Huz represent a 3-clan Horite confederation based on kinship. The Horite confederation is not identified as Uz, Huz and Buz, but rather as Dedan, Tema and Buz. This means that the Ishmaelite clan of Tema intermarried with the Horite clans of Edom. Genesis 36 confirms this, listing Uz's grandson Dedan as a Horite ruler. Here we also find reference to Huz or Husham of the land of Tema (Gen. 36:34).

The oldest Arabic script emanated from the North Arabian oases of Tema and Dedan in the Hijaz. Tema is known by Arabs as Taima and lies about 70 miles north-east of Dedan. Tema, Dedan and Dumah were caravan stops along the trade route from Sheba to Babylon.

The Dedanites were famous for mining and the Timnah Valley in the southwestern Arabah, is rich in copper ore and has been actively mined since the 6th millennium BC. They dwelt in the caves of the hills and built shrines such as at Petra. Beno Rothenberg excavated a small Horite shrine dedicated to Hat-Hor at the base of Solomon's Pillars. It was built during the reign of Pharaoh Seti I at the end of the 14th century BC. This is further evidence that the Afro-Arabian Dedanites were kin to the Horites who venerated Hat-Hor, the virgin mother of Horus.

Dedanite men shaved their heads (Jeremiah 25:23), as did Horite priests. This suggests that this was a confederation of Horite priestly families who were probably also metalworkers. Aaron was likely a metal-working priest, which explains why the people appealed to him to fabricate a golden calf.

We have established that the Ishmaelites intermarried with the Temanite clan of Seir the Horite. They also intermarried with the Joktanites who lived in Southern Arabia. However, the Ishmaelite rulers were vassals of their half siblings who were the sons of Abraham’s wives. Ishmael, as a regional ruler in obedience to his brother kings, was known as a great archer and we are told that God was with him (Gen. 21:20).

In birth order, Ishmael was not Abraham’s first son nor was he the progenitor of all Arabs. The majority of Arabs are descendants of Abraham by Keturah who bore him six sons. The most prominent of these sons was Joktan, the father of Dedan (the region where the oldest Arabic scripts have been found). So while it may be claimed that Abraham is the father of most Arabs, not all Arabs are descendants of Abraham through Ishmael.

Genesis portrays Ishmael as a fiercely independent chief who resisted his subjugation. He is described as a “wild donkey of a man” who raised his hand against his brothers and lived his life “in defiance of all his kinsmen” (Gen. 16:12). Yet he stood at Isaac’s side at the burial of their father (Gen. 25:9).


Related reading:  Sent-Away Sons; The Afro-Arabian Dedanites, Peleg: Time of Division; Abraham and Job: Horite Rulers