Noah's Flood: Where and When?

Alice C. Linsley

Noah's flood took place c. 4500-4000 BC. Noah was a Proto-Saharan ruler at a time when the Sahara was wet. He lived in the region of Lake Chad in the last high-water period of the African Aqualithic. According to Genesis 6, he saw the waters rise to such as height that the ridges surrounding the Lake were submerged. 

While flooding was occurring in the Noah’s homeland, other regions of the world were relatively stable environments with populations that did not suffer from a global deluge. In 4000 BC, Mesoamericans were cultivating maize and natives of the Andes were cultivating beans and squash.

Noah and his sons lived in relatively recent history, not at the dawn of human existence. He and his descendants appear to be Haplogroup R1. Those populations dispersed out of Africa.

The flood of Noah occurred in the region of Lake Chad during the African Aqualithic, a term coined by the British archaeologist John Sutton (Journal of Africa History 1974; Antiquity 1977). These years of wetness were likely due to monsoonal patterns that brought an extended rainy season to the Lake Chad Basin (outlined in red on the map below). The Basin is ringed by mountains from which the water would have drained into the Basin.

Lake Chad is a great depression or basin which in the Nilo-Saharan is Tchad. The etymology of the word is very interesting. It is linguistically related to the Luo word chaddhoreh, meaning a wound or bruise. In Isaiah 1:6 the King James Version translates the Hebrew chabbarah as "bruises", but it also means wound or depression where something has been cut out. The Luo verb chaddho means to cut out, to pluck out, or to bruise the skin. A wound of this type is called chaddhoreh in Luo. So, the name Chad describes the cut out basin which filled with water and became Mega Chad in the Middle Holocene.

The Proto-Saharans were river peoples who shared many common beliefs, customs and symbols. Their civilization was at its peak between 10,000 and 4000 BC when the Sahara was wet. The major water systems connected the Nile and Central Africa. The historian Roland Oliver describes the Green Sahara as follows:

"[In] the highlands of the central Sahara beyond the Libyan desert,... in the great massifs of the Tibesti and the Hoggar, the mountaintops, today bare rock, were covered at this period with forests of oak and walnut, lime, alder and elm. The lower slopes, together with those of the supporting bastions — the Tassili and the Acacus to the north, Ennediand Air to the south — carried olive, juniper and Aleppo pine. In the valleys, perennially flowing rivers teemed with fish and were bordered by seed-bearing grasslands."

The black mahogany Dufuna dugout (shown above) was found in the Sahara buried 16 feet under clays and sands whose alternating sequence showed evidence of deposition in standing and flowing water. The dugout is 8000 years old. By comparison, Egypt's oldest boat is only about 5000 years old. Peter Breunig (University of Frankfurt) has written this description of the Dufuna boat:

“The bow and stern are both carefully worked to points, giving the boat a notably more elegant form”, compared to “the dugout made of conifer wood from Pesse in the Netherlands, whose blunt ends and thick sides seem crude”. Judging by stylistic sophistication, Breunig reasons that, “It is highly probable that the Dufuna boat does not represent the beginning of a tradition, but had already undergone a long development, and that the origins of water transport in Africa lie even further back in time.”

Noah's Contemporaries

Territories adjoining Noah's territory were governed by other rulers, probably some of which were Noah's kinsmen. These were among the "mighty men of old." In Genesis 6:9-11, Noah is described as God's favored ruler on earth; "an upright man among his contemporaries." Some of the rulers known to have lived around the time of Noah include the chiefs of Nekhen on the Nile.

The oldest known zoological collection was discovered during excavations at Nekhen in Sudan in 2009. This royal menagerie dates to 3500 BC and included hippos, hartebeest, elephants, baboons and wildcats. The story of Noah preserving a collection of animals is based on historical reality.

Nekhen is the oldest know site of devotion to Horus, the son of Ra. This was the dominant religion of the Nilo-Saharan peoples. The Proto-Saharans venerated cattle and left engravings of bulls and oxen with solar disc between their horns. They imagined that the Y of the horns was a cradle for the sun, and they regarded the sun as the Creator's emblem.

Hathor, the mother of Horus, is shown with the sun cradled between the horns (image right). It was believed that she conceived by the overshadowing of the sun. The Y indicated divine appointment That is why many Biblical figures have names with the initial Y: Yaqtan (Joktan), Yishbak (son of Abraham by Keturah), Yitzak (Issac); Yishmael (Ishmael), Yetro (Jethro), Yosef (Joseph), and Yeshua (Joshua/Jesus).

Hathor was also the patroness of Horite Hebrew metal workers as shown by discoveries at Timna. A temple dedicated to Hathor was discovered at the southwestern edge of Mount Timnah by Professor Beno Rothenberg of Hebrew University.


Saharan peoples before Noah

Evidence of pre-Noah populations in the wet Sahara include the discovery of cemetery dating to about 5,000 years before Noah. Paul Sereno unearthed 10,000-year-old skeletons at Gobero in Niger. These were buried on the edge of a paleolake on the northwestern rim of the Chad Basin. The Gobero site is the earliest known cemetery in the Sahara and the skeletons found there indicated that some were at least 6 feet tall. Perhaps these are the Anakim, the giants of old, who dispersed out of Africa.

Gobero skeleton (G3B8) measures 6 feet 6 inches
Photo (c) Mike Hettwer, courtesy Project Exploration

According to Sereno, these earlier Holocene people left when it became arid, but the area was repopulated by a taller people around 4600 B.C. when humid conditions returned. Flooding occurred on and off over a long period. Wet conditions prevailed from 7700-6200 (phase 2). Sereno states, "The darkened bone color of all human skeletons in phase 2 burials is indicative of sustained inundation." (Read about Sereno's work here.) Another wet period corresponds to the time that Noah would have lived in the region of Lake Chad, between 4200 and 3800 B.C.

At the time of the Gobero populations, humans were dispersed globally, and during the time of Noah these populations were not destroyed. Consider the following population estimates by urban center  in 4000 BC:

Dobrovody (Ukraine) – 16,000

Eridu (Iraq) – 4000

Fedorivka (Ukraine) – 6000

Jericho (Israel) – 9000

Nebelivka (Ukraine) – 17,000

Nekhen (Nile Valley) – 5000

Tell Brak (Syria) – 5000

Urul (Iraq) 5000


All these population centers were located on water systems that would have been destroyed had there been a global deluge. However, there is no evidence of such a catastrophe.

Related reading: Water Systems Connected Nile and Central Africa; How Big Was Noah's Flood?; Boats and Cows of the Nilo-Saharans; Noah's Homeland in Historical Perspective; Why Cows Were Sacred in the Ancient World; The Mighty Men of Old; When the Sahara Was Wet; A Tent For the Sun; As in the days of Noah; Was Noah Mesopotamian or Proto-Saharan?; Noah's Homeland; Noah's Flood: Where and When?

The Aleph as Ox Head

What follows is an interesting email communication in which a reader of Just Genesis shares his thoughts. He also stresses the need for further research on the connection between ancient Hebrew and the symbolism of the ancient Nilo-Saharans.


Hello, Alice

I looked at your blog on the ox figures and I want to state that I can only give you my own opinion, for there are still holes that need to be filled in my research concerning this. One thing I do know is the aleph is an ox head. It is the beginning letter.

It means first, strength, ox..... How important this symbol was to the ancient people I have not uncovered. I see a lot of kemet symbols using the ox and I know the ancient Ebry teachings and people came from Africa, so there is definitely a connection.

You mentioned the Apiru people in your article. I want to state that hebrew is a word but you will not find it in scriptures because Ebry refers to specific statements the name Eber holds. Hebrew has another meaning. I am working on a pdf that will explain it. I am going through tribal languages showing commonality the root letters have between Africa and Ebry. The definitions the name Eber has reflects in the tribal language and more. It is new revelation to us average people, but it has always been present. It need to be investigated further.


Origin

In my opinion it all started around the Sudan area. Many tribes came together and formed a government. This is true for kemet as well as Yshral who assembled later before going out. Yshral formed probably behind political and social status ills affecting them in their day. They were the ancient equivalent to the U.S pilgrims. They were likely the outcaste, slaves and common people who were overly oppressed by the government. A lot, if uncovered, will have to do with religious stand points.


Letter symbols

The Y is that of the forearm. The taw as I use in my name "x" stands for sign or mark.

Here is something to think about. Tahuti was a scribe or writer creating signs. Even the "t" in ebry alphabet is similar. Which brings up the subject of pronunciation. "T" may actually suppose to be "Th" as the ancient pronunciation of tahuti (dhwty). The "t" and "d" are interchangable.


Semites

Note: there is no such thing as a semitic ethnic group. What people base the notion off of is an assumption which I can prove to be an error by going through the African languages showing what the word really represents. Sem is the noble, honorary people having a good name or character. They are revered as elders.

It all goes back to understanding the Architypes Shem, Cham and Yphet concept and their role in the system.

There is so much that needs to be explored concerning the Ebry culture as a whole.

If I find any more info about the aleph I will pass it along to you.

Best regards

Tauemyah



Tauemyah,

This is fascinating! I agree that the point of origin appears to be Sudan at a time when the Sahara was wet and the Nile much wider.

It is clear to me also that we have much more research to do to get below the surface of the linguistic connections between the Nilo-Saharan ancestors of Abraham and his people.

The A or ox head symbol would also represent the Creator who is given first place, or assigned the value of one, among the ancient Nilo-Saharans. This is reflected in Shema Yisrael: "Hear, O Israel: the LORD is our God, the LORD is one."

The Y represents the Creator's appointed or overshadowed ruler/chief. So we have these rulers: Yishmael, Yitzak, Yacob, Yisrael, Yaqtan, Yosef, Yeshua, etc. You note the connection to the X (Tau). This connection (interchange) is evident in the Old North Arabian scripts. Thamudic is one example. Here is an excellent paper on this subject: http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n3937.pdf

Approximately 11000 Thalmudic inscriptions have been found scattered from Syria to Yemen. Similar inscriptions have been identified along the Nile in Sudan. These are accompanied by petroglyphs of humans and oxen with circles and spirals. Ox and cattle skulls were placed at the pan graves of the Nilo-Saharans.The cemetery near Hosh el-Guruf included 90 closely packed stone circles. The covered shafts were circular and lined with stones, a typical feature of the pan graves of Nilo-Saharan nobility. Pan Grave cemeteries have been found at a number of sites in Sudan, Egypt and Ethiopia. Excavations at Kerma have uncovered a walled town surrounding a monumental mud-brick temple. In a royal cemetery to the east, four massive grave tumuli contained several hundred human remains. The remains were surrounded by thousands of cattle skulls.

Thanks for sharing your thoughts with me. The research you are doing is very important. If I can help in any way, please let me know.

Best wishes,

Alice C. Linsley


Related reading: Why cows were sacred in the ancient world; Nilotic cattle herders; The bull's head in antiquity; Reality is cross shaped; Recovering the African background of Genesis; Old North Arabian Scripts

Orientations of Nilo-Saharan Monuments

Alice C. Linsley


The astronomical observations of the ancient Nilo-Saharans led to different orientations for their shrines and burial sites. The majority of the sites show alignment to meridian cardinal directions and the solar arc. This is evident also in the placement of the settlements of first and second royal wives on a north-south axis. Their settlements marked the northern and southern boundaries of their territories. The Creator's solar boat or chariot traverses from east to west. This was viewed at the Creator's daily journey between the eastern and western horizons.

The rulers of Genesis 4, 5, 10 and 11 controlled territories along the ancient water systems. The extreme boundaries of their territories were marked by the settlements of their two wives. As the rivers were oriented more or less on a north-south axis, so were their wives. Abraham's first wife resided in Hebron and his second wife resided to the south in the area of Beersheba.

It has been argued that part of the arrogance of Lamech (Gen. 4) is that his wives Ada and Zillah lived in separate settlements on an east-west axis. In this Lamech set himself as an equal to the One who rules the universe. As the Hebrew scholar Theodor Gaster noted, Adah and Zillah correlate to the Akkadian words for dawn and dust.

These early rulers listed in Genesis provide insight into the thinking of the Nilo-Saharan rulers when it came to the orientation of their monuments. The earliest alignments adhere to either a solar orientation or a north-south orientation. Later sites are found with quarter-cardinal and south-north orientations.


Solar orientation

The temple of Hathor-Meri at Timna was built by the ancient Egyptians. Here the Egyptians oriented the temple to the rising sun at the winter solstice.

Timnah in the Sinai is the site of the world's oldest copper mines. The oldest date to at least 4,000 BC, and there are newer ones as well, totaling about 10,000 shafts. At Timna there are ancient rock carvings showing Kushite/Egyptian warriors in chariots, holding axes and shields. A temple dedicated to Hathor-Meri (later called Isis) was discovered at the southwestern edge of Mt. Timnah by Professor Beno Rothenberg of Hebrew University.

The 19th Dynasty tombs of Merenptah (fourth king) and queen Twosret were constructed so that the light of the rising sun on particular days of the year would pass through the burial chamber and strike the sarcophagus of the king.

Queen Twosret is believed to be the second (cousin?) wife of Seti II. Her name has been found associated with the turquoise mines at Serabit el Khadim and the copper mines at Timna.


North-south orientation

The north-south orientation of shrines and tombs was established by observation of Mekhetyu, the circumpolar constellation identified as the Plough. Meskhetyu is mentioned in the Pyramid Texts as an “imperishable” group of stars. This constellation was associated with Horus, whose totem was the falcon. The falcon-headed Horus supports the platform of Meskhetyu.

In 2005 Tomb 23 was discovered at Nekhen in Sudan. This was the largest structure of its kind from the Naqada II period (c.3500 - 3200 BC) and it was oriented north–south.


South-north orientation

King Horemheb

King Horemheb, the last king of the 18th Dynasty, built two tombs. His tomb (designated KV57) is in the Valley of the Kings and his old tomb is at Saqqara. 

The axis in degrees of tomb KV57 is 357.72 and the orientation of the axis is north. This represents a later development which subsequently became the norm for most of the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings.

Horemheb was from Nekhen, the oldest known shrine city dedicated to Horus, the patron of kings. Nekhen is south of his Theben necropolis and likely Horemheb's choice of orientation was simply to face north from his home.

Horemheb's old tomb at Saqqara was used for the burial of his queen Mutnodjmet. It was built between 1333 and 1323 BC. Mutnodjmet was Nefertiti's sister.

Quarter-cardinal orientation

Another orientation resulted from rotating the N-S line by 45°, 90° or 135°. This quarter-cardinal orientation is especially evident at Upper Nile/Nubian shrines. This rotation meant that the definitive axis was aligned either perpendicular to the Nile or parallel to the Nile.

At most of the temples at Thebes the axes of the monuments were rotated by 135° from the astronomical north-south line. This mean that the temple facades were almost perpendicular to the Nile.  Many sacred shrines of the ancient world faced great rivers.


Abydos' three areas

During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2000 BC) excavations were made by the Egyptians at Abydos, located south of Cairo. Apparently, they were searching for the tomb of Osirius, who was believed to be one of the first kings of Egypt. The tomb of Djer was identified at that time as the burial place of Osiris in Abydos. Because it was believed that Osiris was buried at here, Abydos became an important cult center during Abraham's lifetime (c. 2000 BC). The modern name for the site is Umm el-Qaab, which means “Mother of Pots” in Arabic. This name is due to the great number of Late Period sherds scattered in the piles of debris.

By 3400 BC Abydos had developed into an elite cemetery, and between 3050 and 2700 BC, it became the burial site of the kings of Egypt. Since 1977, the area has been excavated thoroughly by the German Archaeological Institute.

Abydos comprises three areas. Cemetery U which is situated on a plateau, dates to the early Naqada Period (c. 4400-3700 BC). It contains 650 graves. Abydos was an important shrine city at the intersection of the Nile, and a traffic route from the Red Sea through Wadi Qena to the oases in the Western Desert. Cemetery U was in use throughout most of the Naqada Period (4400-3000 BC).

Cemetery B contains the graves of the last Predynastic rulers Irj-Hor, Ka, and Narmer, and the tomb complex of Hor-Aha, founder of the 1st Dynasty. Hor-Aha's three chambers had a southwest intercardinal orientation of 225°

Seven large tomb complexes have also been identified. One of these is identified with king Djer, son of Hor-Aha. Hor-Aha's first wife was Benerib and his second wife was Khenthap. Khenthap is named as king Djer's mother on the Cairo Annals Stone. Again we find the early practice of rulers having two wives, as was the custom among Abraham's Horim.

Bracelet found in the tomb of Djer

Related reading: The Orientation of Ancient Egyptian Temples; The Orientation of Ancient Tombs in Egypt; Was the Giza Sphinx a Recumbent Lion?; The Religion of Tamar at Timna; Genesis on the Ancient Kingdom Builders; The Marriage and Ascendancy Pattern of Abraham's People

The Origin of Castes

Alice C. Linsley


The evils of the caste system are regularly expounded in contemporary writings. In The Open Society and Its Enemies, Karl Popper argued that Plato’s ideal state, with it three-tier structure, is totalitarian. Yet, as others have noted, Plato's ideal represents an improvement upon the rigid caste structure that characterized ancient societies. Plato suggested that some particularly gifted individuals should be trained to work outside of their caste. This was a radical idea for his time (BC 428-347).

The egalitarian nature of American society makes castes anathema. We react strongly to perceived or real limitations of our freedom of choice. On this matter we find agreement among such disparate groups as feminists, the National Rifle Association, gay activists, and libertarians.

Rarely do we consider the benefits of the caste system. It lent stability to ancient societies. The castes represented line of work: tanners, potters, metal workers, warriors, etc. Members of a caste were proud of the work they did and this pride extended to their family's heritage.  A young man stepped into the occupation of his father and the caste protected the occupation against intruders. This worked better than modern labor unions.

People knew their place in society. This is literally the case, since the cities of the ancient world reflected the social hierarchy and that hierarchy was reflected in the location of residences. Nobles, priests and temple staff lived more centrally. The lower castes, such as potters and tanners, lived on the edges or outskirts.

Caste identity provided a strong sense of duty. The Bhagavad Gita states, "By devotion to one's particular duty, everyone can attain perfection... By fulfilling the obligations he is born with, a person never comes to grief." (BG 18:44-48) This idea is found in Judaism also. Baba Batra wrote, "All appointments are from Heaven, even that of a janitor." (Talmud, Baba Batra 91b)

Members formed stable marriages with partners within their caste and received support from their kinsmen. The caste also lent job security similar to that provided by Medieval guilds and modern trade unions.

Castes as a reflection of the heavenly hierarchy

As Mircea Eliade noted, ancient social structures and religious rituals are patterned on celestial archetypes. The ancient Horites believed that their ruler-priests were deified "sons" of God. They are often called "gods" (elohim) as in Exodus 22:28:

"Thou shalt not revile the gods (elohim), nor curse the ruler of thy people."

In this view, rulers are appointed by God to restrain evil, to establish justice, and to reward those who do good. Not only do they act on God's behalf; they act as “gods” on earth, patterned upon the Horim (Judaism) or Houris (Islam) who comprise the divine council in heaven. This is evident in Psalm 82:1:

"Elohim has taken his place in the divine council in the midst of the elohim he holds judgment."

That this is about rulers is evident in Psalm 82:6,7:

"I said, 'You are gods [elohim]; you are all sons of the Most High. However, you will die like men and fall like any other ruler."

The divine council is a central theological (and Christological) image in the Old and New Testaments. A later expression of the celestial hierarchy is the fascination with the ranks of angels. Often it is unclear in Biblical texts whether the writer has in mind deified rulers or angels. Consider, for example, how the terms "priests" and "angels" are interchanged in St. John's Apocalypse.

In the Rig Veda (c. 1000 B.C.) four castes are elaborated as the representation of the divine body.

When they divided the Supreme Being,
how many portions did they make?
What did they call his mouth? What his arms?
and what his thighs and his feet?

The Brahmin was his mouth, and
his arms were made the Kshatriya,
his thighs became the Vaisya, and
from his feet was the Sudra born.
(Rig Veda 10:90.11-12)

Paul likewise describes the Church as the mystical Body of Christ. His analogy of arms and legs, with Christ as the head, draws on ancient tradition. The Church is the Body of Christ, a new creation ushered in by the Messianic age. This body has many parts, but four in particular are named. In I Corinthians 12:27-30, Paul explains, “Now Christ’s body is yourselves, each of you with a part in the whole. And those whom God has appointed in the Church are…

First - apostles
Second - prophets
Third - teachers
Fourth - workers of miracles and so on


The caste system as it developed in India has five classes:

The ruler-priests or Brahmin caste performs Vedic rituals and provides guidance

The warrior-nobles or Kshatriya caste which protects society and keeps the peace

The merchant class or Vaishya caste which includes the landed families, farmers with large holdings, bankers, and merchants

The Sudra which includes artisans, peasants, servants and manual laborers

The Dalit or "untouchables" who the Aryans subjugated and forced to do the basest work.

The Sudra and Dalit are descendants of the Har-appan peoples who built the great temples of southern India with the falcon-shaped fire altars. In Vedic tradition the Shulba Sutras teach that "he who desires heaven is to construct a fire-altar in the form of a falcon." Har-Appa means "Horus is Father" in Dravidian, and the falcon was Horus' animal totem. Gandhi called the Dalits "Harijans" and Pakistani Dalits are called "Haris."


Tracing castes to Africa

Evidence from linguistics, anthropology, archaeology, and molecular genetic indicates an African point of origin. People in the ancient world were born into their caste and married within their caste. Among the Nilo-Saharans, one's occupation was determined by the caste to which one belonged and the caste members protected their trade secrets. The Biblical Kenites did their metal work outside the towns (I Sam. 15:6) where the artisans' secrets could be protected.

The protection of trade secrets and metal working prerogative is evident today among the Inadan smiths of Niger. When a Taureg overlord attempted to do metal work, an Inadan prerogative, the Inadan smiths launched a mock attack on his home to warn him against further attempts to make jewelry (See image below. Photo credit: Michael Kirtley).

Inadan metal worker attacks Taureg 's house with bellows
National Geography, Aug. 1979 (p. 289)

As many subcastes exist, it is difficult for a Hindu to know who is one’s equal or one superior. Many Hindus are concerned with who they may marry and with whom they may eat. Similar concerns are found among observant Jews.

Although the origin of castes is disputed, castes characterized ancient societies well before the Vedic Age (c. 1700-800 BC). One of the oldest known castes is that of the Hapiru or Habiru (Hebrew). This was a caste of priests and priest attendants who served at the water shrines and temples of the ancient world beginning as early as 4000 BC. They are sometimes called "O-piru" because they reveranced the Sun as the emblem of the Creator. The O in O-piru is a solar symbol.

Within this priest caste there emerged a cult devoted to Horus as early as 3500 BC at Nekhen in Sudan. These are called Horites. The Horites were a Proto-Saharan caste who later were found among the Kushites. The Kushite marriage and ascendancy structure speaks of the promised Son to whom God will deliver the eternal kingdom. Abraham's people were Horites. Even today Jews call their ancestors "Horim" which is a variant of "Horite."

While the term "caste system" is generally associated with the Vedic culture in India, this social organization can be traced back to neolithic Africa. Although not all lines of work were along caste lines, as John W. May has demonstrated, the Horite priesthood shows evidence of having been a caste in the strictest sense of the word. The Horites practiced endogamy whereby they preserved their bloodlines in anticipation of the coming of the Deified Ruler who would be born from one of their chaste Horite virgins.

In the Bible the Horites are associated with the Edomites (Genesis 36). Their ruler-priests (the ha'biru) were renown for a high standard of sexual purity and morality. Before their terms of priestly service they shaved their bodies and did not consume wine. Plutarch wrote that the “priests of the Sun at Heliopolis never carry wine into their temples, for they regard it as indecent for those who are devoted to the service of any god to indulge in the drinking of wine whilst they are under the immediate inspection of their Lord and King. The priests of the other deities are not so scrupulous in this respect, for they use it, though sparingly.”

The southernmost state of India, Tamil Nadu, is well known for its caste system. The languages spoken here are related to ancient Egyptian and Proto-Saharan languages. Genetic studies have linked the people to Africa rather than to Asia.

The distribution of deep-rooted Indian-specific Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial lineages suggests an initial settlement of modern humans in the subcontinent from the early out-of-Africa migration. Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans. The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations. Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists. (From here.)

The Indian archeologist B. B. Lal's contends that the Dravidians came from Nubia and Upper Egypt. Lal writes: "At Timos the Indian team dug up several megalithic sites of ancient Nubians which bear an uncanny resemblance to the cemeteries of early Dravidians which are found all over Western India from Kathiawar to Cape Comorin. The intriguing similarity extends from the subterranean structure found near them. Even the earthenware ring-stands used by the Dravidians and Nubians to hold pots were identical." According to Lal, the Nubian megaliths date from around 1000 B.C." (From here.)

Herodotus referred to the Sudra as the “eastern Ethiopians” and described them thus: “The Eastern Ethiopians differed in nothing from the other Ethiopians, save in their language, and the character of their hair. For the Eastern Ethiopians have straight hair, while they of Libya are more woolly-haired…” (Herodotus VI.70, The History, trans. George Rawlinson, Dutton)


Related reading: The Low Castes that Live Among the Hawiyya; Evidence of Castes in the Book of Ruth; African Religion Predates Hinduism; A Tent for the Sun; The Afro-Asiatic Dominion; Wine Use in Antiquity; The Hapiru Were Devotees of Horus; Religious Tradition; Stone Work of the Ancient World

Eden Was a Well-Watered Region

Henry Breasted's map of the Fertile Crescent. He coined the term "Fertile Crescent."

Alice C. Linsley

According to the Genesis 2 description, Eden was a vast well-watered region that corresponds to the Fertile Crescent shown on the map above. This is the home of the biblical Hebrew who dispersed out of Africa in Canaan, Arabia, Mesopotamia, Iraq, and Anatolia.

In the garden of Eden narratives, we find clues as to the cultural contexts of the narrators. The term Eden derives from the Akkadian term edinu, which refers to a fertile plain or a well-watered region. The Hebrew word gan (garden) is related to the Kushite term egàn, which refers to a virgin forest.

Cain moved "east of Eden" (Gen. 4:15) and his descendants are found in the land of Kenan/Kenites, which is the land of Canaan, or כנען, pronounced kena'an.

Cain was a sent-away son who established his territory "east of Eden" which is to say that he moved away from his brother Seth who is associated with the Upper Nile Valley. (See An Anthropologist Looks at Genesis 5.)

The phrase "east of Eden" in the Hebrew text is "quimat-Eden" and appears to be a Nilotic reference. Originally, the word was probably qma, and ancient Egyptian word that refers to bulrushes. So it is possible that Cain went to the place of bulrushes, which would be the Nile Valley. In Exodus 2:1-10, we read the story of how Moses; mother hid her infant in the bulrushes of the Nile.

Perhaps Eden simply refers to a well-watered region, just as the Hebrew word gihon (Genesis 2) refers to a gushing spring. One of the rivers that bounded Eden to the south is called the Gihon. It is likely one of the rivers at the source of the Nile in the Ethiopian highlands. The earliest human populations settled by major water sources which sustained them.


Abraham's ancestors were Nilotes and Proto-Saharans

The book of Genesis contains the oldest layers of information about Abraham's Nilo-Saharan ancestors who ruled territories along the Nile when the Sahara was wet (Neolithic Subpluvial). At that time the water systems of the Sahara were larger and interconnected.  This has been confirmed by geological and hydrological studies of Central Africa and by discovery of proto-Saharan petroglyphs of boats and cows.

It has also been attested by the discovery of an 8000-year black mahogany dugout in Dufuna in the Upper Yobe valley along the Komadugu Guna River in Northern Nigeria. The Dufuna boat (shown above) is about 2500 years older than the oldest known boat in Egypt.

The area shaded in red is the location of biblical Eden. It was said to be a well-watered area. Today this is one of the driest regions on earth, but during Noah's time and before it was vastly wetter. Abraham's ancestors came from this region. It is the point of origin of the Abrutu or Habiru (Hebrew) who preserved for us in a biblical record the traditions, beliefs, and practices of their ancestors.

Biblical Eden had forests, sustained large herds in the grasslands.
The region was well watered by extensive, inter-connected water systems
including the Nile, Lake Chad, Lake Victoria and the Benue-Niger Trough

Mega-Nile was once comparable in surface area to Lake Michigan (22,394 sq miles) in the US, Lake Tanganyika (12,703 sq miles) in East Africa, and Lake Baikal (12,248 sq miles) in Siberia. Here is the latest information on the vast expanse of the Nile during the last interglacial period.

Between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago the Nile filled with waters from the Angolan Highlands. Before this time, the streams of the Ugandan highlands flowed west to join the Congo River, which drains into the Atlantic. Geological uplift about 12,000 years ago tilted the region to create Lake Victoria and direct its excess flow north into the White Nile. The waters of the White Nile provide most of the Nile's water during the dry season. Essentially the entire Albertine Rift was a vast flood plain extending 3,700 miles from Syria to central Mozambique.

Likewise, the now dry Botswanan lake basin in southern Africa was once a sea, filled by water from the Angolan Highlands. Thousands of manmade stone tools have been found in the area dating to between 80,000 and 100,000 years.

Between 12,000 and 7,000 years ago Lake Chad filled its present drainage basin and spilled southwest out the Benue River to the Atlantic. It was called "Lake Mega Chad" and during that time it was the world's largest lake with a surface five times larger Lake Superior. The local population calls Lake Chad the "Sea of Noah" and the regional place names "Benue" and "Borno" also refer to Noah. 

Genesis 2:10-14 says that Eden was watered by four rivers: the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Pishon and the Gihon. Two rivers are in Mesopotamia and two are in Africa. This is the place of origin of the ruler-priests and of "him that holds the scepter from the house of Eden" (Amos 1:5). They are "the mighty men of old" who spread across this region. This is the point of origin of the practices associated with the priests of ancient Yisrael/Israel: circumcision, animal sacrifice, two-wife marriage pattern for rulers, sent-away royal sons, and the Holy Name YHWY.

The Ethiopians identify the Gihon with the Abay River, which encircles the former African kingdom of Gojjam. The Pishon "flows through the whole land of Havilah" (Gen. 2:11) which was rich in gold and bdellium, a semi-transparent oleo-gum resin extracted from Commiphora wightii and from Commiphora africana. These trees only grow in Ethiopia, Eritrea, and other parts of sub-Saharan Africa.

Havilah was a son of Kush (Gen. 10:7) and the "Kushites" lived in the upper Nile region and the Sudan. Kushite kings also ruled in Egypt and were the first to unite the peoples of the Upper and Lower Nile.

The description of Eden as a well-watered region is supported by climate and geological studies. These four rivers encompass the heart of Eden in the ancient world which was ruled by a network of kings, priests, and clan chiefs. They controlled the major water systems and built shrines and temples along the rivers. They exacted taxes on cargo that moved along the rivers between twin cities that set up effective maritime checkpoints.

Related reading: Boats and cows of the Nilo-Saharans; Noah's Flood: Where and When?; The Gold of Ophir; Sudan is Archaeologically Rich; The Ancient Egyptians Were Sea-Faring

The Jebusites Unveiled

Alice C. Linsley

The Jebusites were likely a Nilo-Saharan people who migrated to the region of the Benue Trough when the Sahara began to dry out. What is known about the Jebusites indicates that they migrated into Nigeria where they controlled the major water systems at the conjunction of the Niger and Benue Rivers and at the Atlantic coast near modern Lagos. They also migrated east into the land of Canaan where one of their leading men - Melchizedek - was the ruler-priest of Salem (Jerusalem) in Abraham's time (Gen. 14:18).

The modern day Jebusites are the Ijebu and they live near and have close association with the modern day Edomites who are called "Edo."  Both tribes live in Nigeria and Benin. In Canaan the Jebusites had close connections with the Horites of Edom.

The ruler-priests who controlled the ancient water systems that connected West Africa to Mesopotamia were Horites.  That is they were devotees of Horus, whose worship along with his father Re and his virign mother Hat-hor, spread along the water systems from ancient Kush to Mesopotamia and beyond.  This was about 10,000 years ago when there was a great Kushite migration and the Sahara was much wetter.

Dr. Christopher Ehret explains how the climate caused the movement of three groups of people. He writes, "The initial warming of climate in the Bølling-Allerød interstadial, 12,700-10,900 BCE, brought increased rainfall and warmer conditions in many African regions. Three sets of peoples, speaking languages of the three language families that predominate across the continent today, probably began their early expansions in this period. Nilo-Saharan peoples spread out in the areas around and east of the middle Nile River in what is today the country of Sudan. Peoples of a second family, Niger-Kordofanian, spread across an emerging east-west belt of savanna vegetation from the eastern Sudan to the western Atlantic coast of Africa. In the same era, communities speaking languages of the Erythraic branch of the Afrasian (Afroasiatic) family expanded beyond their origin areas in the Horn of Africa, northward to modern-day Egypt. (History in Africa, p.3-4)

The Jebusites are classified in the second group, as are the Ashante of Ghana. (Asha-nte means "People of Asha." Asha was a name for God; as is Azu in Accadian, Asa in Chadic, and Ashai in Hebrew; a Jerusalem priest was named Am-ashai in Neh. 11:13.)

The Jebu are generally classified as Yoruba, but the term 'Yoruba' applied only after the 18th century. The Jebu identify themselves as distinct from other Yoruba sub-groups by calling themselves Nago-Jebu. The Jebu are also called Ijebu, and in the Bible they are called "Jebusites."

According to African legend, the Yoruba migrated to the Atlantic coast of Nigeria from the east. Some stopped in the region of Lake Chad where they had kin in Bor'no (land of Noah). Their kin were likely the Kanuri tribe (descendants of Kain), which may explain why some Yoruba have tribal marks similar to those of the Kanuri.


New York Times Report Confirms Jebusite Control of Waterways.

In 1892, the New York Times reported on the Jebu tribe, which controlled the water systems of the Port of Lagos. The king of the Jebu levied taxes on all products carried through his territory. This is consistent with the biblical information concerning Abraham’s ruler-priest ancestors who controlled water systems in Nigeria (where Jebu still reside), Canaan and Mesopotamia. This also explains the relationship between Abraham and Melchizedek, a Jebusite ruler priest of Jerusalem, to whom Abraham offered tribute.


The Jebusite 3-Clan Confederations

The Jebusites 3-clan confederation is identical to the 3-clan confederations found among Abraham's horite caste. While there are 2 Jebu provinces, there are 3 brothers: Yoruba, Egba and Ketu. In Genesis we find this 2 kingdoms-3 brothers pattern throughout the book. One brother is often veiled/hidden or more peripheral to the events described. For example, we are told that Noah had 3 sons and Genesis makes it clear that the lines of Ham and Shem intermarried, but the Bible tells us very little about the descendants of Japheth since they appear to have migrated into Europe.  Likewise, Abraham had 3 first-born sons: Joktan, Ishmael and Isaac, but we really have to dig into the text for information on Joktan, the firstborn of Keturah,  Abraham's second wife.

We also discover from study of the Jebu living today that a kingdom is established when the ruler-apparent marries a second wife. This explains Abraham's urgency to fetch a cousin bride for Isaac before his death. Following the marriage pattern of the rulers of his people, Isaac would have already had a half-sister wife in Beersheba.

The principal ruler of the two Jebu provinces - Jebu Remu and Jebu Ode - is called "awujali." Jebu rulers are installed with palm branches. Jude Adebo Adeleye Ogunade writes in his memoir about growing up Ijebu. He was warned not to touch the leaves of the Igi-Ose tree, because as his Mama Eleni explained: "That tree is the tree whose leaves are used to install Chiefs and Kings of Ijebu and as your grandfather was a custodian of the rites of chieftaincy and kingship you must not play with its leaves." (Interestingly, the University of Oxford, Institute Paper, n° 7, (1937) on Medicinal Plants lists this plant as a blood purifier - see reference HA 1k, here).

Fresh palm tree fronds are used ceremonially at the installation of rulers and are used to decorate places of worship. The association of palm trees (tamars) with rulers and prophets is a common among Abraham's people.  Deborah sat under a tamar as a judge and a prophet in Israel.

When the people used palm fronds to greet Jesus as he entered Jerusalem, they greeted him as one to be enthroned. The connection between rulers and trees at sacred centers is found among the tribal peoples of West Africa. Among the Yoruba, fresh palm tree leaves are employed on occasions of installation of a sovereign, and to the office of high priest. (Read more about the palm tree in connection with rulers, prophets and shrines here.)

Related reading:  Trees in Genesis; 3-Clan Confederations to 12 Tribes; Abraham's Kushite Ancestors;  Who Were the Horites?; Abraham's Firstborn Son; Nimrod was a Kushite Ruler; The Nigerian Jebu